Nigeria Aims to Capitalize on Regional Integration amid Evolving Emigration Patterns

Nigeria’s migration trajectory has witnessed significant changes in recent decades. While emigration has been an integral part of the nation’s history since the mid-1980s, the dynamics have shifted due to current global and political realities. In recent years, the country has balanced emigration, especially of Nigerian professionals, alongside rising immigration from regional neighbors and humanitarian displacement.

One of the recent changes relates to emigrants’ destination choices. Nigerians have increasingly been attracted to Asian and Gulf countries, in addition to more traditional destinations in nearby African countries and in the West, due to the large supply of skilled and professional labor, as well as relatively easier migration laws and policies. As a result, more professionals and skilled workers are emigrating for job opportunities, constituting a major economic force both for host nations and for Nigeria, in terms of foreign remittances.

Secondly, significant numbers of Nigerians who are migrating to Europe, North America, or Malaysia are doing so for education. This is evident in reports that Nigeria is the top African-origin country for international students in Canada, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These kinds of movement have created a large diaspora and encouraged many Nigerians at home to seek their own migration opportunities for educational and work purposes.

At the same time, Nigeria has sought closer integration with other members of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and countries across the African continent, which has resulted in a growing population of immigrants. Meanwhile, it is reckoning with fast-moving demographic change, as the most populous country in Africa and the sixth most populous globally.

This country profile provides an overview of Nigeria’s migration history, current trends, major policies, and key debates.

Historical Migration Trends

Before the imposition of colonial borders, West Africa functioned mainly as a borderless socioeconomic space, where movement was fluid, continuous, and consistent. Mobility was shaped by factors including trade networks (such as the trans-Saharan trade routes), the search for fertile land and pasture by farmers and herders, security and migration to safe havens, and religious and cultural exchanges.

Ethnic groups such as the Hausa and Yoruba developed extensive commercial and political networks across wide territories. The Hausa, for instance, established city-states such as Kano and Katsina that became major trading hubs, attracting merchants and migrants from across West Africa. Similarly, Yoruba polities such as Oyo maintained regional influence that facilitated movement across present-day Nigeria, Benin, and Togo through shared language and kinship systems. These movements were not perceived as international migration per se, because ethnic identity and lineage ties often mattered more than territorial boundaries, which did not yet exist in the modern sense.

After Nigeria’s independence from the British Empire in 1960, cross-border movements became more formalized, following the establishment of national borders and sovereignty. With this formalization, however, came disputes over the roles of migrants in economic development. Nearby nations including Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Senegal, and Sierra Leone repatriated migrants for economic and public safety reasons, particularly between 1958 and 1979. This restricted the flow of migrants but did not keep Nigerians and other West Africans from engaging in economic migration to neighboring countries.

By the 1970s, following Nigeria’s oil and economic boom, international migration significantly increased as the country became a choice destination for migrants from across Africa and, indeed, the world. To organize and harness the economic potential of mobility in West Africa, the ECOWAS Free Movement Protocol was initiated in 1979. The protocol provided for three phases of mobility: the right of entry, the right of residence, and the right to establish economic activities. Accordingly, Member State nationals under this protocol can travel to any other Member State and settle therein; this right was to be reflected in all national migration policies.

However, events in the 1980s—including the collapse of oil prices and revenues and a military coup d'état—resulted in the emigration of Nigerians to neighboring and faraway countries for education, business, and residence. Civil wars in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Mali, and Sierra Leone during the early 1990s further strained the practicality of the free-movement protocol due to the millions seeking refuge in neighboring countries.

By the turn of the 21st century, when Nigeria’s democracy was restored, the emphasis turned to stabilizing political tensions in the subregion while managing seamless migration between ECOWAS Member States. From the late 1990s onward, Nigeria has been a hub for intraregional movement within the ECOWAS region.

Contemporary Drivers of Immigration: Economic Growth and Regional Violence

Nigeria’s return to democracy in 1999 brought significant economic, infrastructural, political, and security changes, leading to an appreciable level of urban development. Being the largest economy in West Africa has meant that significant numbers of rural and urban dwellers across the subregion have aspired to migrate to Nigeria for business, agriculture, or education. Conversely, the gradual economic, political, and security decline has also driven emigration from the country.

There were 1.4 million immigrants in Nigeria as of 2024, according to the UN Population Division, accounting for 0.6 percent of the country’s total population of 234 million. Most of these immigrants were from elsewhere in West Africa, with the largest number coming from Benin (see Table 1). The immigrant population in Nigeria has nearly tripled since 2000, when it stood at 488,000.

The major motivation for immigration is the significant economic difference between Nigeria and its West African neighbors. Nigeria’s economy is the second largest in sub-Saharan Africa, after South Africa, according to the World Bank, and accounts for nearly half of the total gross domestic product (GDP) of the 12-member ECOWAS region. Within West Africa, Nigeria’s informal sector provides opportunity for many traders, who come in significant numbers. Many immigrant youths from neighboring countries often cross informally into Nigeria to work in the black market.

Immigrants from Benin mostly live in the western region of Nigeria, near the border with their country, due to proximity with Lagos (Nigeria’s business capital) and Ogun State. Trade and logistics services from the Apapa port and the border route into Benin serve as economic attraction points for this group of immigrants. Shared ethnic ties with the Yorubas of Nigeria also promote the movement.

Nigerien, Chadian, and other Sahelian immigrants in Nigeria are mostly concentrated in the northern states, near the borders with these countries. Many arrive after being forcibly displaced (see below). According to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), while the majority may eventually head for Abuja or, in smaller numbers, Lagos, the border communities of these northern states serve as a destination for trade.

In terms of flows of migrants, the number of annual foreign arrivals has fluctuated, increasing by 73 percent to 875,000 in 2015, then declining in 2016 and 2017 and growing again by 22 percent in 2018. From 2013 to 2017, there were approximately 1.2 million arrivals in Nigeria annually. About 77 percent of newcomers reportedly headed for Lagos, which is the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa and a major economic center. Data on the movement of ECOWAS citizens are scarce, but in previous years most arrivals were of returning Nigerian citizens (see Figure 1).

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

The number of refugees and asylum seekers in Nigeria went up from approximately 55,000 in 2019 to 139,000 in 2026, according to UNHCR (see Figure 2). The main countries of origin for these individuals were Cameroon, Niger, the Central African Republic, Syria, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Cameroon has accounted for the largest refugee and asylum-seeker population in Nigeria (120,000 as of 2026) following the political conflict there since 2017, followed by Niger with 13,000.

Nigeria hosts refugees in camps and cities across border states, providing access to work and education. The major refugee-hosting communities are in the states of Cross River, Akwa Ibom, Taraba, Benue, and Adamawa. The cities of Lagos, Abuja, and Kano also host many refugees and asylum seekers, who engage in various forms of labor and trade as allowed by the Nigerian state. Settled refugees, especially around the Cross River area in southeastern Nigeria, have created communities within native Nigerian areas to cater to new arrivals. Closely working with Nigeria’s federal and state governments, UNHCR has engaged in initiatives to enhance these refugees’ access to education and work in Lagos and Abuja.

Recent Emigration Trends: Opportunities Abroad and Domestic Insecurity

Nigeria’s economic troubles, evident in high unemployment rates and underemployment ratios as well as wage differentials with other countries, have been a significant push factor for emigration. Emigration has been driven by comparatively better working conditions for wage workers and unskilled laborers alike outside West Africa, as well as the demand for professionals in the health, technology, and education sectors of countries including Canada, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This emigration has created fears of brain drain and is sometimes referred to as “japa syndrome,” using a Yoruba word meaning to flee or to escape.

Nigeria had a diaspora of approximately 17 million (spanning emigrants, their children, and later generations that claim ancestral ties) as of 2024, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM). Approximately 2.1 million Nigerian migrants lived abroad that year, with the top destinations being the United States, the United Kingdom, Niger, and Cameroon, according to the UN Population Division (see Table 2).

Demographics are also a factor for emigration. Nearly half of Nigeria’s population is between the ages of 18 and 45. High unemployment among young adults, who are intent on gaining economic security, has combined with perceptions of government hostility against youths, as some claimed was evident in the military’s 2020 shooting of protesters in Lekki, Lagos State, during which at least 12 people were killed and hundreds injured.

Many have gone to other countries for their studies. There were 89,100 Nigerians studying abroad as of 2019 (the most recent year for which full data are available), with the United Kingdom and United States serving as top destinations (see Table 3).

The flow of remittances has been recognized as a major source of economic revenue, especially in investments. Members of the diaspora sent an estimated $21.3 billion in remittances to Nigeria in 2024, a figure that has remained generally level in recent years, accounting for 8.4 percent of GDP. The United States has historically been the origin of the largest share of remittances to Nigeria, accounting for $5.7 billion as of 2021 (the most recent year for which data are available), followed by the United Kingdom ($2.8 billion).

Much of the country’s emigration has been facilitated by mobility arrangements, including the ECOWAS Free Movement Protocol. Although political approaches have varied since the advent of the free-movement region, Nigeria has also instituted structures to facilitate the emigration of skilled workers. Nigeria’s National Migration Policy and the National Policy on Labor Migration help facilitate emigration and protect skilled and professional Nigerian migrants, as does the International Labour Migration Desk, a division of the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment. 

The Nigerian diaspora plays a significant role in motivating and facilitating the international movement of Nigerians. These social networks help ensure that necessary credentials are made available to emigrants to enhance their settlement in a new country.

Impacts of Insecurity

Many also attribute youths’ motivation to emigrate to public exhaustion with poor governance and lingering insecurity. Indeed, the declining security situation in Nigeria, initially restricted to Boko Haram insurgents in the northeast (Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe states), has extended to virtually every zone in the country. In the northwest, north central, and southern states, armed insurgent and criminal groups have engaged in kidnappings, violence, and killings. Their activities are linked to the immigration of militant fighters from neighboring Chad, Mali, and Niger. In the north of Nigeria, increasing desertification has affected farming communities and contributed to hostilities between farmers and herders, as communities compete over access to water and fertile lands. As a result, many farming communities have migrated to neighboring countries.

Approximately 407,000 Nigerians had sought asylum as refugees in neighboring Niger, Cameroon, or Chad as of January 2026, mostly due to violence and insecurity in the country’s northeast region. Meanwhile, approximately 8,400 Nigerian refugees returned in the first three months of 2025.

The insurgency and armed violence in parts of the country have also displaced a reported 3.2 million people internally, particularly across the north. In addition to the Boko Haram crisis in the northeast, armed communal violence, banditry, and clashes between nomadic Fulani herders and local farmers represent other drivers of displacement, as well as other resource-based conflicts. These tensions have disrupted the education and socioeconomic activities of Nigerians in the northeast, northwest, and north-central or Middle-Belt states.

Meanwhile, a significant amount of human trafficking, mostly of young Nigerian adults and children, is conducted by criminal syndicates, chiefly for prostitution or domestic labor within Nigeria as well as to other African countries, Europe, or Asia. An average of more than 600 children were trafficked annually from 2016 through 2019 (the most recent years for which data are available), according to the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP). NAPTIP has carried out several rescue operations in collaboration with IOM, other international organizations, and the European Union.

Evolution of Key Policies

Nigeria’s migration policies have evolved over the past decade or so. In 2015, the National Assembly modified the 1967 Immigration Act to address oversights related to residence and employment of foreign laborers. The 2015 Immigration Act updated the legal frameworks and clarified entry/exit procedures, residence permits, employer sanctions, and transporters’ liability; it also strengthened enforcement powers. This law effectively modernized Nigeria’s migration governance and aligned it with ECOWAS and continental norms.

That same year, Nigeria launched its first comprehensive policy, the National Migration Policy, aimed at effective administration of migration for socioeconomic development. Among its various provisions, the strategy provides for diaspora engagement, labor migration management, and data coordination, as well as established a governance architecture and multistakeholder platforms.

Also that year, the 2015 Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Enforcement and Administration Act consolidated an anti-human trafficking framework first passed in 2003. Among other provisions, this act underpins NAPTIP’s mandate regarding labor migration regulation and enhances victim protection.

The Immigration Regulations of 2017 outline the rules guiding immigration officers at the Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS), which is the primary institution for controlling movement into and out of Nigeria. This policy operationalized the 2015 Immigration Act; outlined procedures for residence and work permits, temporary passes, investor and expatriate quotas, and compliance inspections; and included provisions on smuggling and trafficking.

In 2020, the Nigeria Visa Policy expanded visa classes and provided visa options such as an e-visa or visa on arrival for targeted categories and aimed to attract investment and talent. This policy met contemporary demands by facilitating faster and easier immigration to Nigeria, and has helped to attract talent and investors. Additionally, the flow of migrants into and out of Nigeria for economic purposes was significantly enhanced by actions including the offer of specialized visas for startups and tech workers among other categories and balancing localization with foreign direct investment.

Among the ongoing reforms for border security agencies such as NIS are the adoption of identity technology systems including e-gates and the capturing of biometrics and airplane passenger data. These reforms are intended to deter smugglers and criminal networks while protecting the rights and ease of access of law-abiding migrants.

Additional changes are in the works. An important step in the country’s migration governance reform agenda is the coordination of data and enhancing of information sharing among migration-related agencies including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; NAPTIP; the National Commission for Refugees, Migrants, and Internally Displaced Persons (NCFRMI); the Nigerian Bureau of Statistics (NBS); and NIS. Periodic and adequate updating of Nigeria’s migration database initiative is lacking but required for effective migration governance. This, coupled with implementation of the National Migration Policy’s monitoring and evaluation plans, are important reforms that remain partially completed.

Some additional issues remain under discussion. To further enhance the safety of arriving migrants, advocates have cited a need for NAPTIP to better fulfill its mandate of guarding against trafficking in persons and related crimes against foreign nationals, in addition to those against Nigerians. They have called for enhancing capacity and collaboration with cross-border task forces and for victim assistance, especially of Nigerians abroad living under adverse conditions. Analysts have said NAPTIP could also benefit by collaborating with labor inspection agencies to guard against child and underage labor and other trafficking crimes.

Finally, regarding regional leadership, observers have said the Nigerian government would do well to enhance security and facilitate mobility within ECOWAS and encourage other nations within the subregion and across Africa to take similar steps. A relatively open policy on continental initiatives to facilitate intraregional migration will necessarily deal with security issues surrounding mobility in Nigeria.

Refugee Protection

NCFRMI (formerly the National Commission for Refugees) was established by Decree 52 of 1989 to coordinate protection for refugees and internally displaced people (IDPs). The commission’s primary responsibility is to protect the rights of refugees, who are legally able to work and access basic education.

NCFRMI also provides conditions for refugees’ eligibility, status determination, and obligations, as well as resettlement plans and crisis responses. The commission works closely with the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) and international organizations such as IOM, UNHCR, the World Bank, and subregional organizations to facilitate the relocation and protection of refugees within Nigeria.

Still, the government needs to enhance the asylum system’s capacity so the relevant institutions can clear case backlogs, facilitate reception, and enhance refugees’ access to work, education, and health care, especially in urban areas, in alignment with both global and African refugee conventions. Currently, very few refugees have benefited from such government support, according to UNHCR.

Emigration and Diaspora Engagement

The government’s efforts to reform labor migration governance include the licensing and oversight of recruiters, ethical recruitment initiatives, the recognition of skills, and bilateral agreements with priority countries, especially in the areas of health, education, and technology. While NIS has advanced reforms to facilitate the immigration application process, the government has identified a need to provide Nigerians abroad with the opportunity to access employment in these fields in priority destination countries, by engaging bilateral labor agreements. In January 2026, Nigeria signed a labor agreement with Saudi Arabia, creating the first-ever formal labor corridor between the two countries.

The Nigerians in Diaspora Commission (NiDCOM) was established in 2017 under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to provide policies, projects, and engage Nigerians in the diaspora and allow for their participation in Nigeria’s development. It also coordinates remittances and talent return programs. In 2017, the government raised approximately $300 million through a diaspora bond. The commission also coordinates labor migration policies and guidelines regarding standardized recruitment, the licensing of private employment agencies, predeparture orientation, and bilateral labor agreements and memoranda of understanding with countries in specialized sectors.

Looking ahead, the diaspora’s significant contributions could be better utilized by investment instruments such as new diaspora bonds or funds, encouraging knowledge-transfer programs, and encouraging and utilizing dual-citizenship privileges such as those that might allow Nigerians abroad to vote from their host countries. These issues have all been debated, but as of this writing there had not been movement to implement them.

Migrants’ Return and Integration Process

Nigeria has developed a multiagency, partnership-based system for migrant return and reintegration, combining government institutions with international organizations. Key national agencies include NAPTIP, NCFRMI, NEMA, and NiDCOM, which work alongside IOM to assist voluntary return and reintegration.

From 2017 to March 2026, IOM assisted the return of more than 60,000 Nigerian migrants who had been stranded on their journey. Many returnees receive vocational training, business support, and psychosocial services to rebuild livelihoods. Structured reception systems at airports and growing collaboration among agencies also reflect institutional progress.

However, the system faces notable challenges. Reintegration remains heavily donor-driven, with weak coordination among agencies, inadequate funding, and limited mental-health support. Many returnees experience stigma, unemployment, and poor community reintegration, while gaps persist in identifying trafficking victims and providing holistic care. Overall, while Nigeria has made important strides in return and reintegration governance, structural and institutional weaknesses continue to limit sustainable outcomes for returnees.

Political Debates: Brain Drain, Irregular Movement, and Humanitarian Demands

There have been several political debates in Nigeria surrounding immigration and emigration.

Some public narratives have portrayed emigration as a symptom of brain drain, as increasing skill shortages have followed the emigration of Nigerian professionals, raising the need to recruit foreign professionals. Others view this movement as evidence of brain circulation, considering that the mobility of Nigerian professionals has created opportunities to exchange knowledge, skills, and resources. Economically, the Nigerian diaspora’s huge contribution of remittances is often cited as a plus for Nigeria’s development. Additionally, the economic opportunities opened to Nigerians through regional and cross-border trade have also had an impact on many households, especially in border communities.

Nigerians’ aspirations to emigrate have also raised concerns because of the numbers moving irregularly, with critics alleging that this movement negatively affects the country’s reputation and demand for Nigerian labor. Emigration through irregular routes has also illustrated the desperation caused by socioeconomic and security challenges in Nigeria.

Nigeria’s immigration and emigration, especially through the northern borders, is often viewed through a security lens, with critics alleging that border management is poor and raising concerns about an escalation of terrorism and insurgent violence. Security scholars also have cited the reported influx of militant fighters across Nigeria’s porous border from neighboring Sahel countries. Meanwhile, advocates and scholars have urged policymakers to address environmental issues in the Lake Chad basin, such as the over-utilization of the lake and desertification of farmlands, which drives rural-to-urban and cross-border mobility.

Humanitarian officials have sought to ensure refugees’ and asylum seekers’ access to protection and settlement in the country, and have raised questions about their political rights. Government documentation of refugees is also poor, making it difficult for officials to distinguish individuals of different statuses, as well as creating concerns about statelessness among people in border communities due to the constant and unchecked movement between countries. The government is balancing refugees’ rights with effective border management and documentation processes.

Finally, media and political figures also play an important role in shaping policy by amplifying high-profile migration incidents. In particular, politicians have raised concern during election periods about an influx of migrants who may lack the right to vote in various parts of the country, especially the north.

Unanswered Questions about Future Emigration, Regional Integration, and Protection

A 2024 Afrobarometer poll showed that 56 percent of Nigerians indicated an interest in emigrating for economic reasons, which implies that many have a dim outlook for the prospects of a reliable education and job domestically. The percentage of students who graduate from Nigerian universities has also dropped significantly, due to the lure of foreign educational and other opportunities. Meanwhile, a significant number of Nigerian academics have left for foreign employment. As a result, the pressure to emigrate has worryingly increased, especially among the young and educated. In particular, emigration of health workers lured by global recruitment opportunities and more attractive working conditions abroad could put Nigerians at risk, if shortages ensue.

Even as emigration raises concerns, Nigeria’s diaspora is seen as a path to enhance the country’s investment outlook and increase mobility and encourage knowledge sharing through skill-return programs. More public government data, in the form of disaggregated statistics, dashboards, and regular migration reports, could facilitate these prospects.

Another dimension to migration in Nigeria is the regional integration mandate that the country has spearheaded. The country’s relatively open borders enhance implementation of the ECOWAS Free Movement Protocol and provide an example for others to follow. Furthermore, the approach has positioned Nigeria for the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), a major continental agreement that was operationalized in 2024. Nigeria will need to continue to strengthen its mobility structures to harness these regional policies and achieve seamless movement across ECOWAS and Africa at large.

At the same time, ECOWAS free mobility would likely work better if residence and establishment procedures were streamlined and information more widely available. This would require regulating recruiters, creating skills partnerships and frameworks for credential recognition, and including more safeguards in health-worker agreements to strengthen labor migration systems. As a leader in the subregion, Nigeria has a role to play in this effort.

Policymakers’ use of increased and smart documentation of citizens and immigrants is important to protect vulnerable groups, including refugees. Local authorities could benefit from enhancing their capacity to be able to allow refugees to access services and facilitate their local integration, as UNHCR and the government of Lagos have taken steps to do. More generally, the country would do well to boost its asylum capacity, especially following the influx from neighboring countries. This can be done by digitizing case management, encouraging community-based reception approaches, and making access to work authorization clearer. In relation to anti-trafficking, there is need to provide survivor-centered services, enhance labor inspection integration and improve cross-border cooperation among the related agencies.

As Nigeria looks ahead to a future where its regional and global influence is expected to expand, its migration patterns will become increasingly significant. As the largest economy in West Africa and the most populous country on the continent, Nigeria occupies a strategic position. The coming years will be crucial in determining how effectively it can balance complex economic demands, demographic pressures, and security concerns, all of which will shape its development trajectory and broader role in regional and global migration dynamics.

Sources

Adedigba, Sam Adebowale and Samson Obaloluwa Ojo. 2025. Examining the Contributions of the Nigeria Diaspora to the Development of the Country. International Journal of Religions and Peacebuilding 2 (1): 59-79.

Adelakun, Ojo J., Fatima A. Mohammed, Abeeb O. Olaniran, and Taiwo H. Odugbemi. 2025. Economic and Geopolitical Push Factors, and Migration Tendencies in Nigeria: The Intervening Role of Institutional Quality. Scientific African 30: e02955. Available online.

Adepoju, Aderanti. 1976. Structure and Patterns of Rural Society in Relation to Internal Migration in Nigeria. In Problems of Migration in Nigeria, eds. Oluwole I. Odumosu, S.A. Aluko, and Aderanti Adepoju. Ibadan, Nigeria: National Council of Social Work in Nigeria.

---. 2002. Fostering Free Movement of Persons in West Africa: Achievements, Constraints, and Prospects for Intraregional Migration. International Migration Review 40 (2): 3-28. Available online.

Afrobarometer. 2024. Majority of Nigerians Have Considered Emigration in Search of Opportunity, New Afrobarometer Survey Finds. Press release, December 18, 2024. Available online.

Afunugo, Kenechi Nnaemeka. 2023. Japa Syndrome and Its Challenges to Nigeria’s Labour Force: A Search for Religious Solutions. Ohazurume: Unizik Journal of Culture and Civilization 2 (2): 70-93.

Agbaje, Yinusa Toyese and Idowu Emmaneul Olubodun. 2024. The Japa Syndrome of Human Capital and Its Socio-Economic Implications on Nigerians. The International Journal of Humanities & Social Studies 12 (5): 37-44.

Agyei, John and Ezekiel Clottey. 2007. Operationalizing ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement of People among the Member States: Issues of Convergence, Divergence and Prospects for Sub-Regional Integration. International Migration Institute white paper, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. Available online.

Center for Preventive Action. 2025. Violent Extremism in the Sahel. Council on Foreign Relations Global Conflict Tracker. Updated September 4, 2025. Available online.

Harmon, Cees. 2022. How Brain Circulation Can Fill the Void of Brain Drain in Nigeria. Nairametrics, November 17, 2022. Available online.

Inegbedion, Racheal. 2022. Migration and Youth in Nigeria. Yasar University policy brief, February 2022, Bornova, Turkey. Available online.

International Crisis Group. 2023. Rethinking Resettlement and Return in Nigeria’s North East. Briefing No.184, Abuja/Maiduguri/Brussels, January 2023. Available online.

International Organization for Migration (IOM). 2019. Migration in Nigeria: A Country Profile 2019. Abuja: IOM Nigeria. Available online.

---. 2025. Annual Report 2024. Abuja: IOM Nigeria. Available online.

---. 2025. World Migration Report 2024. Geneva: IOM. Available online.

---. 2026. Thousands of Nigerians Rebuilding Their Lives After Returning Home. Press release, March 24, 2026. Available online.

Isah, S. M. et al. 2024. A Study on Japa Involuntary/Forced Migration in Nigeria. Paper presented at the First International Conference of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria.

Macrotrends. N.d. Nigeria Net Migration Rate 1950-2022. Accessed March 1, 2026. Available online.

McKeon, Nore. 2018. “Getting to the Root Causes of Migration” in West Africa – Whose History, Framing and Agency Counts? Globalizations 15 (6): 1-16.

Nigerian National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). 2020. Demographic Statistics Bulletin 2020. Abuja: NBS. Available online.

---. 2022. Air Transportation Data (Full Year 2021). Available online.

Nigerian National Population Commission (NPC). 2023. Nigeria’s Demographic Outlook: Youth and Migration Patterns. Abuja: NPC.

Nneli, Tobechukwu, Jessica Hagen-Zanker, and Gemma Hennessey. 2022. Migration-Relevant Policies in Nigeria (v2). Oslo: Peace Research Institute Oslo. Available online.

Ojukwu, Emmanuel C., Nzube A. Chukwuma, and Samuel NC Nwagbo. 2020. ECOWAS Treaty on Migration, and Challenges of Internal Security in Nigeria. Journal of Conflict Transformation and Nation Building 2 (1): 32-50. Available online.

Okunade, Samuel Kehinde and Oladotun E. Awosusi. 2023. The Japa Syndrome and the Migration of Nigerians to the United Kingdom: An Empirical Analysis. Comparative Migration Studies (11) 27: 1-18. Available online.

Olumoyo, Aderonke Esther and O. C. Abiri. 2023. “Japa” Syndrome: Causes, Effects and Solutions for Sustainable National Development. International Journal of Development and Economic Sustainability (11) 5: 87-95.

Umeh, Lucy Chinwe, Edmund Ugochukwu Ugwoegbu, and Ugwuozor Sam. 2024. Effects of Japa Syndrome on the Economic Development of the Nigerian State. American Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (10) 1: 56-59. Available online.

UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). 2022. Urban Refugees in Nigeria – Operational Update. Abuja: UNHCR.

---. 2025. Nigeria: Operational Update Quarterly, January-March 2025. Abuja: UNHCR. Available online.

UN Population Division. 2024. International Migrant Stock 2024 by Destination and Origin. Available online.

Williams, Wendy. 2025. Africa Migration Trends to Watch in 2025. African Center for Strategic Studies, February 3, 2025. Available online.

World Bank. 2018. Record High Remittances to Low- and Middle-Income Countries in 2017. Press release, April 23, 2018. Available online.

Yaro, Joseph A. 2008. Migration in West Africa: Patterns, Issues and Challenges. Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana Center for Migration Studies. Available online.

Zachariah, K. C. et al. 1978. Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa. Washington DC: World Bank. Available online.